The Germanic peoples - tribal groups of Indo-European origin - inhabited the area of Jutland (Denmark) and the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula in the late 2nd and early 1st millennium BC. Most of these peoples remained in their original settlements (North Germans), while others moved at the end of the 2nd century BC (due to gigantic floods and flooding of the sea) towards present-day Germany (West Germans), where they came into contact with the Roman world, with whom the first armed clashes took place. At the turn of the first century, a new wave of peoples (East Germans) left Scandinavia for the Black Sea via the area of present-day Poland. Later, the Germanic tribes, under pressure from the East Asian Huns, moved towards the Roman borders to find new areas to live.
In the first centuries, the Germans lived in rural communities, which meant that the basis of their military system was a unit made up of members of a particular family. It was typically a levy of free able-bodied male population. Initially, chieftains were elected at a rally, exclusively for the period of war, and they did not have permanent retinue of warriors. Warriors were therefore not a professional group at that time and were called to arms when the tribe was threatened or when organizing an attack on rich neighbours. Wars brought booty and wealth for the most energetic and best warriors. With the distribution of wealth, the role of the chieftain began to grow and so the role of free men became increasingly less prominent in time. This was dictated by the fact that the constant threat from hostile tribes required constant vigilance. The most ambitious individuals no longer disbanded their units, but explaining this by the constant threat, took over the power for longer and longer periods of time and eventually permanently stayed in charge of the warriors and tribe.
Influenced by contacts with the Roman state, the Germanic tribes, despite the isolationist policy of the emperors, gradually began to abandon their semi-nomadic way of life, adopting intensive agriculture and a sedentary lifestyle. The custom of having women and prisoners of war working the land was also adopted by free male warriors, who over time became accustomed to a sedentary lifestyle. The transition from a migrating or semi-migrating lifestyle to a sedentary one was of great importance for the subsequent fate of the Germans. The fairly low level of agriculture meant that harvests were supplemented by raiding their neighbours to increase food supplies, and the proximity of the rich Roman state was vert tempting to the poor Germanic peoples.
For ad hoc warfare objectives, Germanic tribes joined together to form larger confederations under a unified command. Ambitious chieftains (as early as the 1st century BC) tried to give these unions state-like features (initially without much success). This was not easy, as the Roman state knew then how to deal effectively with barbarians. The Romans began to populate deserted lands with outsiders, and many of the chieftains even tried to imitate the lifestyle of the Romans. When the admission of larger numbers of Germanic recruits into the Roman army began, however, the situation of the Roman state became dangerous. The onslaught of the Huns against the Germanic tribes, initiated by the defeat of the strong Ostrogothic state in 375, caused the Germans (both East and West peoples) to consolidate to some extent, and led by chiefs who gradually inherited power permanently, they moved across the borders of the Roman state. The Ostrogoths, defeated by the Huns, moved toward the Roman borders first, followed by the Vandals, Suebians, Alans and others.
Germans in the Roman army
The Germanic pressure on Rome's borders was made all the easier by the fact that the Roman army was already hugely barbarized. Contacts between Romans and Germans were not limited to wars. There had been a gradual process of barbarization of the Empire's army. As early as the time of the principate, Rome had a policy of complementing the ranks of its armies with barbarian contingents, brought under Roman command by peace treaties imposed on defeated Germanic tribes, and by recruiting such troops from the pool of the Germanic groups living in the country. This process accelerated when recruitment problems arose among Roman citizens. Barbarian prisoners of war and, increasingly, whole tribes, bearing the status of allies, began to be drafted into the army. From the end of the fourth century, the Roman army consisted mostly of foreign troops, whose soldiers were only marginally influenced by Roman civilization. An increasing number of officers, including those of high rank, were of Germanic origin. After the Roman army was taken over to a considerable extend by barbarians, the Germans began to plunder the lands of the Empire with increasing impunity. By the beginning of the fifth century, the situation on the Roman border on the Rhine was so unstable that not only small groups of Germanic warriors, but already whole tribes began to enter the Roman state. The Germans overrun was facilitated by revolts by Roman troops in Gaul and Britain against the legitimate authorities and by frequent clashes between the Roman army's barbarized troops and native units. When the Roman emperor, Honorius (395 – 423 AD), began to switch to the side of the anti-Germanic faction seeking to take control in the state and get rid of foreign influence, repressed Germanic soldiers in the Roman army began to switch en masse to the side of the chiefs of the Germanic tribes, seeking refuge with them (408 AD). One prominent Germanic chieftain, Visigoth Alaric, occupied Rome, which no longer had the armed forces to defend itself (410 AD).
Ways of fighting
The military tactics of the Germanic tribes were a far cry from the way the Romans or Greeks ones. Avoiding clashes on the open field, the Germans preferred raidings. Initially, the main purpose of raids was plunder and fame, less the acquisition of new territories. Raids were carried out by irregular groups of warriors, recruited on an ad hoc basis from the members of family or tribe. Before commencing an expedition or a battle, the warlord would seek advice from women who practised divination. An auspicious omen was the prerequisite for action to engage in battle or, as circumstances were not favourable, to postpone the decisive clash to a more convenient time. Although numerous Germanic troops were described in a fearsomely way by the Romans as very numerous, in reality they were the exception. The units numbered between 10 and 1,000 warriors, who - as the Roman sources want us to believe - were tall, had a wild expression and in their eyes and were generally fearsome in their appearance. They were also skilful at handling of weapons and had an almost inconceivable courage. The object of such a group of warriors was to attack and loot the nearest Germanic or foreign village. Usually a warrior detachment consisted of only about a hundred men. Germanic tribes rarely attacked in groups of more than 20,000 to 40,000 men, as it is recorded in some Roman chronicles. Only the most outstanding individuals were able to gather a larger army around their leadership, unbound by blood ties only by the authority of the leader and his military credibility. The Germanic tribes that overthrew the Roman Empire were never as numerous as the Roman army. For example, at the Battle of Adrianople (378 AD), the allied troops of the Germanic tribes and the Huns numbered only 18,000 warriors. The invasion of Africa took place with a force of 16,000 Vandals. Between 407 and 410, it is reckoned that the forces of the Visigoths, Vandals, Alans and Suebians totalled about 60,000 warriors, less than the Roman army in the West.
There was no uniform manner of the recruitment and training of soldiers, and the death of a charismatic leader generally led to disbanding of his army. Moreover, more than half (up to 70 per cent) of such a group were non-combatants - women, children and elders. During battle, the non-combatants would take shelter behind carts and, by loud shouts, urged the warriors into fighting more fiercely. The position of this human army was also precarious in that it was, together with all its livestock, on constant the move. This greatly restricted the group's mobility and put it at risk of attack. To avoid the danger of an attack, the vulnerable column of people required good reconnaissance by scouts. Also, feeding a large number of people was extremely difficult and forced the Germanic chiefs to cooperate and make deals with the Roman authorities. For food resources, some chiefs were also prepared to deliver soldiers.
Fighting within the Roman Empire required a change in the way of warfare. Attacks from concealment could no longer lead to final victory. In time, situations required more and more to face the enemy in direct combat. When it came to battle in the open field, the tactics of the Germans were very rudimentary. One of the most successful military strategies was to arrange a wedge formation (the so-called boar's head) and make a sudden, fierce attack on the enemy. The aim of this type of attack was to immediately break the enemy's ranks with momentum. In a situation where the enemy was able to defend itself effectively, the formation would break down and a melee would ensue, in which the Germanic opponents had usually the upper hand owing to their armament, both offensive and defensive (except the frank throwing axe and the long sword, which had no counterpart among their opponents). Against weapons of the Romans, the Germans wielded spears, clubs (sometimes ending with a metal part) and simple wooden shields. Dropping the shield in battle brought dishonour to the warrior and was the cause of frequent acts of taking one's own life by hanging. The same ignominious death sentence was passed on traitors and deserters. Cowards were drowned. In spite of this, the failure of the first wave of attack usually meant defeat. The retreat, which was generally disorganized and chaotic, also made it difficult for the Germanic chiefs to bring order to their own ranks.
The siege Warfare
The adopted siege warfare was a significant disadvantage of the military system of the Germans, who were not able to conquer urban centres easily. There were instances when the German warriors intensively attacked and besieged fortified cities, but conquered by the way of starvation. To implement this method with success, however, they did not have enough patience, time or food resources for the warriors. Sometimes they succeeded in capturing a fortified city with a sudden attack or by means of treachery, almost never with a sophisticated siege. Sometimes cities opened the gates to save themselves from the wrath of the barbarians. It is a telling fact that only very few urban centres had the determination to withstand a siege until the relief arrived. The reputation of the barbarians instilled fear in the defenders and paralysed their desire to defend themselves. In the sixth century, the besieging the city of Roman Vitiges (536 AD), began to use wooden siege towers on wheels. The towers were pulled by oxen. The city dwellers coped with this too, killing the animals with arrows and thus immobilizing the machines. The tribes were also unable to cooperate effectively with each other in siege actions.
The Germans were mainly infantrymen, although some warriors who were in contact with nomadic tribes learned to be excellent horsemen. A good cavalry unit, consisting of Germans, was used by Caesar at the time of the conquest of Gaul. Those cavalrymen were instrumental in defeating the Celtic peoples.
The main disadvantage of the Germans, for most of the time, was their failure to unite under a single leadership and form a compact armed force. Those chieftains who succeeded in doing so managed to overthrow the once mighty Roman Empire, inflict defeat on the ancient world and lay the foundations of the medieval art of war.
The victorious Germanic tribes settled in most areas of the Roman state, giving rise to new states and geographical names. The Alemanni settled in Alsace, the Alans and Suebians in the north of the Iberian Peninsula (411), the Britons in the Armorican Peninsula, the Burgundians in the Rhône basin (443), the Franks in Gaul between the Rhine, the Scad and the Ardennes Forest (486), the Lombards (Northern Italy), the Ostrogoths in Pannonia (453), the Saxons in England (450) and the German Lowlands, the Visigoths in Spain (464) and Aquitaine, the Vandals in North Africa (439).