ritain - called Albion by the Romans - has remained part of the Roman Empire since the conquest of the Celtic tribes inhabiting it in the mid 1st century BC. Independence from Rome was only maintained in the northern part of the island inhabited by the Picts, who were, however, separated from the Roman part by a border wall. So far, the Romans had also been quite successful in holding off the advance of the Germans, whose pirates from the Saxon tribe were the first to arrive on the island as early as the mid-3rd century. Roman forts built in south-western Britain guarded the islanders and their way of life, and the superiority of the Roman soldier, although greatly diminished in recent years, was sufficient to successfully oppose the Germanic and Pictish warriors. The legions, however, were increasingly drawn into civil strife, abandoning their bases and neglecting the task of protecting the state from an external enemy. In 407, a certain Constantius and a large number of his soldiers left the British outpost and marched militarily on Rome to gain power. Britain was already on its own and had almost no official contact with the weak central government. The Romans, Romanised inhabitants and Celtic Britons who remained on the island had to resist the Germans with their own forces. To the north and west, the Scots and Picts also came under increasing pressure. At the beginning of the 5th century the last soldiers of the Roman army left Albion. Deprived of the protection of Roman weapons, the island became the scene of increased expansion by newcomers from mainland Europe - the Germanic tribes of Saxons, Angles and Jutes.
Anglo-Saxon army
For more than 150 years Germanic outsiders managed to conquer large parts of the island. The former inhabitants, managed to keep for themselves the western (Wales, Cornwall) and northern parts of Britain (Scotland), which were naturally less accessible and thus less economically attractive. The Celts of Ireland also retained complete independence from the Anglo-Saxons (until the second half of the 12th century). In the conquered territories (which later became England proper) several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in the 6th and 7th centuries. These were not peaceful living state entities waging frequent feuds with each other for supremacy. The armed arm was the sparse kingdom guard and the main force was the so-called fryd - a common movement of free peasants. In 829 the king of one of the kingdoms Egbert of Wessex united the Anglo-Saxon countries into one state - England. The unification tendencies were accelerated not only by wars and unification policies of the rulers of the individual kingdoms but also by destructive Viking raids, mainly from Denmark. The pirates of Jutland initially ravaged and plundered the coasts and then began to seize more and more territory and eventually settled permanently. For young Scandinavian warriors, who lacked land in their homeland, Britain was an attractive enough place. The Danes in the north-east of England created an area - the Danelaw - where their customs and their own system of government prevailed. As a result of wars and treaties between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings, a state and military system developed from both parts; by the 11th century, the kingdom had an army made up of Anglo-Saxons and Danes (or their Danelaw descendants), who formed court troops and a common army. The court guards were the best trained and armed part of the army. They were professional soldiers. The Fryd, on the other hand, was numerous but sneaking with an uneven degree of trained soldiers.
The household guards was the only formation directly under the king's command. The kingdom was not a political and ethnic monolith. The position of the ruler was insecure in relation to the numerous nobles who formed powerful families. Even after the unification, the old grudges led to numerous feuds and more or less open armed conflicts. Rebellions and betrayals against the king were also frequent, which further weakened England militarily.
The aristocrats also had their own, albeit small, professional detachments. They were also obliged to call up the frydu under arms and to show up at the assembly point designated by the king. The obligation of military service was extended to all able-bodied, free peasants. They formed poorly armed units, with little (if any) training, composed of indigent farmers. On the battlefield these infantrymen formed a phalanx formation. The weapon of first choice was therefore the spear. Swords, mainly imported, were not common and were possessed mainly by the wealthier. The armament of the phalangists was almost exclusively a round wooden shield. Even wealthier peasants or aristocrats rarely wore armour or a helmet. To complete the infantry formation, there were few archers.
With the arrival of the Vikings, who in time began to settle in the invaded lands, the Anglo-Saxon military system proved ineffective. The better-armed, better-trained and better-armed Vikings, who were familiar with warfare and who attacked suddenly, were a difficult opponent for the irregular and poorly-armed common army, which fought without organisational cohesion or manoeuvrability. The lack of discipline sometimes allowed the Vikings to break down the wall of shields - the only strong asset of the Fryde. This led to individual skirmishes. The superiority of the Vikings was evident in such cases. If the Anglo-Saxon army was defeated in the open field, England, which at that time was devoid of fortified towns and cities, was an easy target. The population, if they could see the danger in time, fled with their belongings and animals into the forests and marshes. Villages and crops fell prey to the invaders, which weakened the country economically and made it impossible to recruit large mercenary troops. Disputes between families meant that neighbours did not always rush to each other's aid and sometimes even helped the invaders to fight their feuding kin. These factors and the situation forced the Anglo-Saxons to make military reforms and adapt to the needs of the moment. The main reforms took place during the reign of King Alfred the Great (c. 849-899). The friede was divided into two parts - the higher friede, which was constantly under arms, and the lower friede, which, as before, farmed and was called under arms at the time of danger. A soldier of the higher fried was chosen as a warrior from five villages for a period of several months of service. In peacetime some of the men were dismissed to their homes, others formed crews in fortified settlements and bridge repairs. A few months' stay in the army made them semi-professionals often used for expeditions. For some, their stay in the army was prolonged or, after a period in civilian life, they were sent out again to serve. The commoners continued to fight with javelins and with war hammers and maces. The axe also appeared among some soldiers. The bow (whose time of glory was yet to come) and the sling were also becoming more popular. The Friar lower was still called to expeditions but limited to 2 months of service. In the period of special threat, however, it was possible to convoke a mass movement several times a year. The fryd were led to fight by the magnates in the passed land - earls. Those who did not fight in the common march could be called to arms for a short time as a defence of the coast and reinforcement of the garrison of the town or city, or in the case of border counties (shire) on an expedition against the Welsh or Scots.
In the 10th century - dating from the reign of Alfred - the role of the ruler's bodyguard was also strengthened. These were professional warriors, usually mercenaries from Friesland. Devoted to the king, well paid, knowing the fighting style of the Vikings and armed to their fashion, they were a valuable asset. Having mercenary guards economically attached to him also allowed the king a great deal of independence from the Anglo-Saxon mighty men, whom he could more easily keep in check.
The Frisians were also the founders of the Anglo-Saxon navy. Early on, it was an indispensable factor in the fight against the Vikings, who reached England by sea. Over time, warriors of Scandinavian origin, mainly Danes, gained the upper hand in the guard, whose role continued to grow. These soldiers were called hausekarls. Their main weapons were battle axes (the Danish type and the larger, more widespread type, with a blade of at least 25 cm. on a shaft about 90 cm. long) and spears. The Housekarls were only one of several groups of paid mercenaries who served in England before the Norman conquest. It is clear from the annals that there were other armed groups proficient in land and sea warfare known as lithsmen and butsecarls. There were also troops of foreign warriors under the control of their own commanders, who served not only as a standing army for the king but also as entourage for important Anglo-Saxon earls. The ninth and tenth centuries were a time of numerous wars with the Scandinavians, who settled on the island and were constantly arriving. The Anglo-Saxons fought to maintain their independence and their lands both against the Jarls (private ventures, ravaging lands as well as seizing new territories) and organized expeditions of the Norwegian and Danish kings (state ventures aimed at capturing the English crown). When fighting foreigners, the Anglo-Saxons used the tactics of ragged warfare. If the situation seemed favourable they also fought in the open. In this way the Anglo-Saxons were successful against the individual Viking lords. After initially volatile battles, they succeeded in imposing their peace terms on the Vikings of Danewlow, which forbade them private wars and raids. In the long run, for those living from raiding, among other things, this proved unacceptable. Many warriors left the island, some went into the service of the English kings, others became farmers. Much more difficult for the Anglo-Saxons were the organised military expeditions of the Scandinavian kings, which lasted until the appearance of William the Conqueror, who defeated the Anglo-Saxon army at Hastings in1066, the same year William became king of England.
The newly elected ruler initially sought the cooperation of his subjects. However, he encountered resistance from a large proportion of the Anglo-Saxon nobles, who were reluctant to see their role diminished at the expense of the newly arrived Norman and French knights and nobles. Between 1068 and 1071 the Normans had to face uprisings directed against their rule. The revolts were ruthlessly suppressed and a new policy of dealing with the conquered population was introduced. More than 2000 native nobles were deprived of their estates and replaced by a group of about 200 Normans and French. Peace and obedience and protection from the invading Scots and dangerous Scandinavians were to be ensured by more than 500 castles and cities built during William's reign. New England was born.
Irish army
The Green Isle was inhabited by Celtic people living in clan communities (irl. clann). For centuries the Irish Celts had no need to fear invasion by foreign armies. Ireland - although the possibility existed and the Romans were tempted by fugitives from the island - did not share the fate of Britain. Roman coins found on the east coast of Ireland testify only to occasional trade contacts between the Romans and the inhabitants of Hibernia (as they called it). Thus Irish statehood did not form in antiquity, and power rested in the hands of local clan chiefs. Such patriarchal ancestral communities, with a strong patriarchal authority, lived in scattered farms until the 8th century. Each clansman identified himself with his own family, which was constantly at war with others. These clashes consisted of raiding neighbours for booty or were, as in Scotland, motivated by the law of vendetta. As there were no towns or cities in Ireland until the 8th century, the only places with defensive features were monasteries. The monastery and its precincts were inhabited by the leader of a particular clan and a subordinate family. The huts of the servant population were concentrated around the monastery. The prior of the monastery and the clan leader shared the tributes. Often the prior was the younger brother of the family doyen.
Devoid of group fighting tactics and poorly armed, the Celts fell easy prey to the Vikings who, even from poor Ireland, tried to make a profit by plundering monasteries but also increasingly settled on the island. With them appeared the first Norse settlements along the coast. Viking ports were established at Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick, which became the first major cities in Ireland The external threat accelerated unification processes among the hostile clans. One of the first rulers who managed to unite the Irish for a time was Braian the Bold (c.941-1014), who defeated the pretenders to the throne of the island and became king of Ireland in 1002. He captured Dublin and defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf in which he died. The Vikings eventually ceased their claims to the island.
Army of the Picts and Scots
The northern, largely mountainous, part of the island of Britain forms Scotland. A desolate place, harsh in its climate, it has been inhabited for centuries by savage and valiant peoples, first the Picts coming perhaps from neighbouring Ireland, who mixed with unknown inhabitants of these lands (from antiquity), and then subsequent newcomers from the same place of unknown native name. These new individuals, for several hundred years (2nd-5th centuries) plagued Britain with maritime invasions. Their Latin name, Scotti, was a term given to them by the Britons, and meant pirates and highwaymen.
The Scots began to settle permanently in Britain from the 5th / 11th century. Initially there were three families, followed by others who gradually colonised the north of the island. There were armed clashes with the Picts, who slowly succumbed to the organizational superiority of the newcomers. The Picts were pushed into mountainous, inaccessible areas, and at the same time new waves of Scots came to inhabit the lowlands. Nevertheless, in the middle of the 9th century an alliance was formed between the warring nations as a result of the danger created by the Vikings, who began to appear regularly on the island and also to settle there. The ruler of the united lands became a Scotsman from a father-king, and a Pict from a mother-king - Kenneth. The time of the 9th and the first half of the 10th century was thus a period of struggle to oust the Vikings. At first the Scandinavians were superior in tactics, weaponry and organisation to the Picts and Scots, who fought in dispersed formation using javelins and bows. This way of warfare did not work and forced the natives to make fundamental changes, fighting in a foot phalanx and introducing the long spear. This change was also accelerated by the increase in the number of farmers who inhabited the lowland areas. These people borrowed the fighting style and weaponry from their opponents. Because of them the character of the Scottish army changed. Further changes were the result of Norman knights from England settling in Scotland. This was a deliberate policy pursued by some Scottish rulers who sought to instil a feudal system on native soil where land was held by a feudal knight who was to be directly loyal to the king and serve him on horseback in times of war. Quarrelsome and powerful clans would thus lose their strong position, which in turn weakened the central power. The introduction of feudalism was therefore met with resistance by the clans, especially in the mountains, where the modernisation of the country in Norman style was seen as a threat to liberties, where previously free people were turned into serfs. On the other hand the knights formed the cavalry, a force needed to defend not only the king but also the state.
A serious change was a decrease of size of units from 5 to 1 thousands and 1,5 thousands-men legions. Generally speaking, a 1000 unit consisted of 650 heavy armed and 350 light armed soldiers. Also, the number of soldiers fell significantly (from 300-370 thousands to 80-150 thousands) who, nevertheless, were more efficient than huge masses of troops. As a result, from 7th to 9th century, the Byzantine army was a very effective force able to fight both the Western Europeans and Arab armies in East. The country was divided into military and civil units called ''themata" governed by generals (strategos) who were military and civil officials at the same time. The soldiers were settled on plots of land becoming this way semi-farmers and semi-soldiers. To some extent the soldier pay was deducted from the land from which the soldiers was supposed to extract profit. In this way, costs of maintaining the army by the state were hugely reduced and the soldiers had an additional incentive to fight for the land which provided them with a living (despite the fact that the land was still owned by the state). Borderland armies recruited in this way were also more useful to take immediate action, without waiting for orders from the capital.
Scholae Palatinae
Some detachments were stationed in the centre of the country. They were palatine troops, also known as Scholae Palatinae. These military formations were established by Emperor Constantine V (741-775), initially as units stationed in and around the capital. Their original task was to protect Constantinople, the emperor, and act as a speed response force.
Troops of aristocrats and foreign mercenaries
Additional military formations were provided by land owners. Their role increased immensely with the advent of the 'themata' system. However, it is almost impossible to describe the way in which soldiers were recruited and the division of their duties. The system worked quite well against the Arabs and Bulgarians in the 10th century. In the 11th century, the landed aristocracy was relieved of the duty of providing soldiers in favour of paying taxes to the treasury. This was justifiable because the borderland aristocrats began to form their own troops, more loyal to them than to the legitimate authorities in Constantinople.
From the paid taxes mercenary troops, consisting mainly of foreigners, began to be recruited again. In the ranks of the mercenaries fought soldiers from tribes settled in the territory of Byzantium (although they did not constitute a significant military force), and purely foreign mercenary units such as Vikings, Slavs, but also Germans (Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Lombards and others). The foreigners in Byzantium were called the Varangians. Some of the foreign troops constituted the so-called Varangian Guard. This military formation, above all, was an elite unit, with the task of protecting the ruler and his family, suppressing rebellions, and enforcing unpopular orders given by the emperor. Nevertheless, it did not participate in battles very often. The personal oath of allegiance given to the emperor, and the alien nature of the detachment meant that the Varangians were not so inclined to rebel, what stand in contrary to the native units. Supplemental to the mercenaries were indigenous Byzantine formations, which, nevertheless, played a secondary role. The new army, however, was unable to fight effectively against either the Turks in Anatolia or the Normans in Sicily. The Byzantine state had been deprived its territories as never before, and a professional army was practically non-existent for a certain period.
Komnenian army
In the 12th century, the emperors were making attempts to rebuild a national army (the Komnenos dynasty) what worked for a while. An important factor which strengthened the Byzantine army, was its command system. Respective emperors stood at the head of the troops setting off on war campaigns. It prevented rebellions and decentralization of the state and military structures. Designated provinces, both European and Asiatic, provided recruits again. Only to some extent, the so-called Komnenian army was made up of foreign soldiers. e.g., taken from defeated tribes such as the Pechenegs (who served as mounted archers). Contingents were also provided by Hungarian and Serbian allies. In general, the native Byzantine units made about 70 percent of the total armed forces of the state.
Heavy cavalry
In respect of organisation the main strength of the army became cavalry. Both, the rider and the horse, were protected by heavy armour, although the Western European knights were even more heavily protected. Horsemen were armed with a spear (known as a kontarion), sword (spatha), small axe and a bow. The weaponry perfectly suited to challenge enemies in the East such as Persians, Turks and Arabs, wherein the Byzantines mostly waged wars. In fights conducted on Western frontiers, the heavy cavalry was a very efficient force against the Hungarians and the Pechenegs. Cavalry regiments were divided into 300 and 400 subunits and fought in formations deep from 8 to 10 lines. Composed in this way formations were very compacted and not easy to make manoeuvres but, on the other hand, also very difficult to break through. The first ranks were armed with spears (contarions) and bows. The archers showered the enemy with a hail of arrows, thus creating gaps in his ranks, and then starting the fight at close range with spears. The first ranks were followed at a gallop by the other lines of soldiers.
Light armored cavalry
A supplement to the heavy cavalry were light horsemen who, usually, played a supporting role. The light cavalrymen were partly recruited from the Byzantine population and sometimes consisted of mercenary troops from the Sarmatians, Avars, Pechenegs, Hungarians and Aramaic tribes. This type of cavalry was mainly deployed in ambushes, skirmishes and reconnaissance. The soldiers usually used their national weapons.
Infantry
Infantry was not as much the decisive factor in battle a in old Roman times. It consisted of light-armed and (mainly) heavy-armed troops. The light infantry was mainly made up of archers, who used the composite bow which range was much greater than small bows of the horse archers. In addition, the archers were armed with small axes for defence (tzikurion) and, the same as cavalry, 90 centimetre long swords, called a spathion. Most Byzantine archers came from Asia Minor, especially from the south cost of the Black Sea where the inhabitants specialised in archery.
As in the days of the Roman legion, the infantry was deployed in the centre of battle formation with the cavalry on its flanks. Usually, the foot soldiers were placed somewhat backward. The first ranks (deep for 15-20 lines) were made up of heavy-armed soldiers. The most forwarded infantrymen used 2-3 meter long spears to keep the enemy at bay. The last three lines were formed by archers, who were protected by the heavily armed infantrymen placed in the first ranks. The heavy-armed infantry came to more significant prominence during the reign of Emperor Basil II the Bulgar-slayer (976-1025), becoming one of the best infantry formations in the word. They were protected by heavy armour and a large (in most cases), round shield, and fought with spears and swords.
Byzantine battle tactics
The Byzantines considered war as a necessity and not a reason to achieve glory. Most of the wars wedged by the empire had the defensive character. Nevertheless, the Byzantine military tactic was highly developed and varied. Their military school was adapted to different foes the Byzantines faced. Byzantine tacticians and generals took a lot from the Roman and Greek legacy. The Emperor Leon IV (750-780), in his work on military issues, "Tactics", sets out instructions on how to deal with different enemies. The tactic places a huge emphasis on hit-and-run warfare. Opponents from Western Europe thus wrongly regarded Byzantines armies as cowardly. The commanders tired not to engage their armies in regular, full-scaled battles unless they gained decisive numerous and tactical superiority. To achieve this, archers were very often used to provoke the enemy to attack in the most disadvantage situation, place and time. The Franks and Longobards fought as heavy cavalry, and preferred direct attacks on their enemies. It was recommended then to avoid, if possible, a direct confrontation. A negative feature of the armies of Western Europe was the lack of discipline and adequate reconnaissance as well as the absence of fortified military camps during night stopovers. In the event of a battle, a tactical retreat had to be initiated and the enemy drawn into an ambush.
The Hungarians and Turks' strength was based on small units of light cavalry which sought to weaken the enemy by a series of skirmishes, attacking the main force only when they found a weak spot. The Byzantine tactic advised it to use archers in the front line, who would keep the enemy's cavalry at bay, and attempt to inflict as much damage as possible on the opponent in the process. Then the Byzantine heavy cavalry would have the opportunity to attack and destroy the enemy with their momentum.
The Slavs were also a very arduous adversaries for the Byzantine army. They fought almost exclusively as infantry, but were also masters of the hid-and-hide tactic, effectively harassing marching enemy columns from hills or bushes. Difficult terrains, where the Slavic warriors operated, made it difficult to use archers and cavalry against them. So, before engaging with Slavic warriors, it was recommended to precede the fight by a very good reconnaissance. In case of fighting in open terrain, the Slavs, fighting on foot and without any protection (but oblong wooden shields), were easy targets for the heavy-armed cavalry.
The Arabs were considered to be warriors possessed by religious fanaticism and longing for plunder. The fight against them consisted in engaging cavalry to tackle groups of Arab warriors crossing the border. It was understandable when we take into account the fact that the Arabs were excellent and incredibly fast riders. In the case of a larger invasion, the cavalry from the border provinces should try to attack smaller enemy forces and cut supply lines to slow movement the invading army. In the meantime, the main Byzantine army, grouped in the heartland of Anatolia, would have enough time to prepare a strike against the main enemy forces. These tactics would be complemented by counter-attacks on enemy territory to force him to retreat and defend his own land.