he hot and unfriendly to the man Arabian Peninsula, inhabited by a pastoral nomadic population - the Semitic Bedouins, didn't play a major role in antiquity. At trade crossroads of the peninsula small towns and settlements rose into existence, among them, the most prominent was Mecca, the main religious centre of the Arabs. Besides the local beliefs, on the peninsula, Christian and Judaism very also influential. From elements of these religions, a merchant named Muhammad founded a new religion - Islam. Muhammad proclaimed himself a prophet and called his followers to spread the new faith by both word and sword. In charge of his followers, engulfed by religious fanaticism, he began a holy war (jihad). He seized Mecca and united the whole Peninsula. All Arabs recognized in Muhammed not only a religious leader but also a military commander. It was then the Arabs embarked on the path of war outside their place of inhabitant. Their military expansion was directed against the powerful neighbours - Byzantium and the Sassanid Persia.
What drove the Arabs to war, was the belief that Allah would grand them victory, and that the warriors who had fallen in battle would be awarded by achieving paradise. Another important reason for the Arab expansion into neighbouring countries, were difficult living conditions in their own land. The Arabs could only look with envy at their richer neighbours. Poor but hardened by harsh climate conditions, well-organised Arab warriors were ready to make many sacrifices to defeat their enemies. These factors made the Arabs great soldiers. Conquests, outside the peninsula, of peoples who were different in every respect, also made it possible to consolidate the different - often staying in conflicts with each other - Arab tribes into one organism. Also, their opponents were not as strong as they used to be. In Persia and, mainly, in Byzantium, there were many internal conflicts of political and religious background. This state of facts helped the Arab armies quick conquests.
Arab conquests
The united Arab tribes, conquered Persia (633-651), and detached Syria (634-640), Palestine, Egypt (640-645) and North Africa (698-709) from Byzantium. In 712 the Arabs invaded the Hindus valley (659-714), conquered almost all of Spain (713) and occupied Kashkar (Central Asia). In the following years the Mediterranean islands came under Arab control - the Byzantine Balearic Islands (798), Sardinia (760), Crete (823), Corsica and Sicily (831-878). In 846, they briefly captured Rome and robbed the churches and the seat of the Pope.
Even before the conquests of Byzantine lands began, as well in the course of them, the Arabs adopted a number of military innovations from their neighbours - the Byzantines and the Persians. This applied mainly to the armies of the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty, who reformed the army based it on the Byzantine model. As a result of the battles with the empire, the Arabs not only grew richer, but also acquired large quantities of weapons, and captured ports and shipyards on the Mediterranean coast. All this laid foundations for further conquests.
Principles of war
Originally, the Arabian army was made up of voluntary joining it inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula who believed in the message of Muhammad. The military aristocracy consisted of the Prophet's relatives and those who supported him in the first place during his struggle for power - the Emigrants (muhajirum) and the Helpers from Medina (ansar). Soldiers, by principle, were to be recruited by their own will than by compulsion. The recruits should have no debts and should enjoy good physical and mental health. The Prophet then established guidelines on the conduct of wars, but these were not strictly speaking military rules. In this way the practice of conducting wars was formed. It was forbidden for soldiers to kill women, children, old people and clergy, desecrate bodies, burn houses and destroy possessions in an enemy country. These rules were applied by many Arabs rulers, though not all, both during the conquests and the crusades. The Arab army became somewhat more professional during the reign of Caliph Omar, who initiated military reforms in 637. They were gradually introduced in the territories conquered by the Arabs. Every able-bodied adult male (professing Islam) was registered on a special list, thus becoming a potential recruit. The amount of payment to be received for his service was also established. The men were divided into two categories - professional soldiers of the standing army and reservists staying at home who were called up as a necessity aroused. Unlike in most armies (especially Western Europeans), the soldier remuneration was paid mainly in money, seldom in grants of land or material goods. Caliph Omar placed particular emphasis on several elements of soldier training: horse racing, the art of archery, barefoot walking and swimming. This was meant to toughen the spirit and shape military skills.
National composition
Initially, the Arab army was to consist exclusively of Arab Muslims. At the time of the conquest of the Sassanid state, Arab soldiers were recruited almost solely from Mecca, Medina and the Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula. As a result of military reforms, the caliphs increased the number of soldiers from about 13 (632) to 100 (657) thousand warriors, which, however, was not always sufficient to conduct wars. In view of military needs, the injunction to be a resident of the Peninsula in order to become a soldier gradually began to change. Thousands of enemy soldiers who had converted to Islam began to be recruited into the army. In this way, among the Arab soldiers found their place Persians, Byzantines and later North African Berbers (this was especially regarded the Abbasid dynasty period (750-1258)). The Arab element then lost its upper hand in the military. These neophyte soldiers took an active part in the conquests of their homelands. From the 11th century, the need for more soldiers led to the recruitment of mercenaries, Seljuk Turks and slaves forming troops called Mamelukes. During the Abbasid dynasty reign, the army was also divided into the following units: the caliph's bodyguard (haras), which was the best trained and paid unit, regular troops (jund) and auxiliary troops (mutatawi) called up in case of war. The latter were recruited from the ranks of nomadic Bedouin and settled impoverished peasantry and poorer urban dwellers.
The army was commanded by officers who were given their posts, usually, only for the duration of the war campaign. After the end of the war or battle, they returned to the ranks of ordinary soldiers.
Military campaign
The time when a military campaign was started usually depended on climatic factors. If the climate in a country that was planned to be attacked, was warm, then military actions usually were conducted in the winter season, but if the conditions were cold, then the army was launching its attack in summer. Also, into consideration was taken of the given land was in abundant in green pastures during the chosen time of year, so to feed horses. In principle, it was planned the forces used in conquering or occupying a given land, did not stay away from home longer than four months. During marches, the army stopped for a longer rest only but only on the holy day for Muslims, Friday. Any other stop on an ordinary day, couldn't be longer than the time needed for the necessary rest, sleep and regaining strength by soldiers.
Cavalry
Each Arab army was self-efficient do it did not need any food supplies. So, there were not any supply lines to be intercepted by the enemy, what would force the Arabs to retreat. The food was transported together with the main body of the army, on wagons or, if there were problems with road networks, on camels. These animals were also used to transport infantrymen if such a necessity arose. Owing to this, Arab armies were able to move freely where it was required, without any organisational obstacles. The only problem could arise if there were no sufficient pastures available to feed horses or insufficient water supplies. Such organisation provided the Arabs the advantage as to mobility and speed over other dangerous armies – the Byzantine and the Sassanid one. Moreover, for many years, Arab commanders had a free hand in choosing their military targets, without interference of the religious and political leaders. It made their military actions swift and unpredictable and gave the upper hand over the above-mentioned military forces. The Arabs also tied not to allow the enemy to concentrate larger forces in one place. Moreover, their armies operated in proximity of deserts, what gave them a safe retreat route in case of defeat. The Byzantines, for example, were reluctant to venture into the desert in pursuit of a defeated enemy.
Ways of combat
The Muslim armies aimed at quick military victories. The Arabs relied on fast and agile light cavalry units armed with bows. Their raiders' weaponry was complemented by a shield, spear (up to a 5-meter length), sword or a club. The type of sword was Arabic origin (short weapon, similar to the Roman gladius) or a Sassanid one (long version). Often the horsemen were armed with both types of swords. In the course of battle, the cavalry usually formed the reserve. After the enemy had been weakened by archers and spearmen, the cavalry attacked from the center, or tried to surround him from the flanks. During the attack the Arabs probably formed a wedge formation, which was easily to manoeuvre.
Cavalry
The main fight tactic implemented against Christians (e.g. the Visigoths) and some Asian enemies (such as the Sassanids) was to engage light cavalry units to shoot at their enemies while constantly being on move. The main target were knights or their horses which were considered to be the weakest spot of the Western European armies (the same applied to the Sassanid's heavy cavalry). This tactic led to chaos and sometimes to disintegration among enemy ranks, especially that the Arab arrows had a huge penetration power. Sometimes, before a general battle commenced, Arab skirmishers had clashed with their opponents, even for a few days, with the aim of weakening the enemy. When that was achieved, a general attract commenced. Often traps were set up, and attacks on moving enemy' columns were conducted. It aimed to prevent a possibility to prepare a counterattack by the enemy who, as it was the case with heavy-armed Western European knights, had an advantage at the close combat.
Infantry
The Arab infantry (muzbarizun) were armed with 2.5-metre long spears. In addition, the foot soldiers had swords, daggers and bows (two-meter long, with a range of 150 meters). The infantry was a defensive formation. Its spearmen formed a shield wall from behind which the archers attacked. The archers' arrows were particularly effective against enemy cavalry during the first period of the Arab Wars Often, the infantry would attack the enemy using their long spears, then retreat, only to attack later. This tactic was called karrwafarr. The foot soldiers were protected by some kind armour (in contradiction to cavalry). This may have been leather or chain mail. Protective armour became much more common as the Arab conquests gained momentum. Wicker shields, covered with animal hide, completed the protection. Shields, as well as armour, often were taken from defeated enemy soldiers. Furthermore, protective, as well as offensive armour, were produced throughout Arabia and Yemen.
Spoils of war
The Arab armies did not fight only for religious glory and to achieve eternal life. The victorious wars with wealthy neighbours brought enormous richness to the poor Arabs. Once a year the warriors received their soldiers' pay (ata), paid in the first month of the Muslim calendar. Additionally, for the bravest of them, were designated special prizes and shares from the spoils of war. By order of Muhammad, any captivated soldier was to become the property of this one who had captured him, and the belonging of a killed, in battle, foe passed to the one who had defeated him. The richness looted in a captured town, usually was divided in the following way: 1/5 went to the command of the army that captured the town, slaves and precious metals were given to the religious leaders, weapons, animals and coins were shared among the warriors. The land and the related with it income, fell under the control of the military administration. On the conquered, non-Muslim population, were imposed two taxes - a head tax from infidels (jizya), and a tax in exchange for not being called up for military service (kharaj). In return, the army was tasked to provide protection of the taxed person and his/her property.
End of conquests
The Arab expansion was ceased for good in the 10th century. As a result of the conquests, the Arabs gained vast lands, however they failed to maintain the unity of their state. Their country broke into caliphates which, in later years, began to divide into smaller states. This made it easier for new enemies, the Turks and the Mongols, to expand their domains at the expense of the divided Arabs.